Radiation Effects On Human Health And The Environment: A Holistic Review Of Exposure Sources, Biological Mechanisms, And Global Protection Standards

Abstract

Radiation exposure—both ionizing and non-ionizing—remains a central global concern due to its widespread use in healthcare, industry, and communication technologies, as well as its presence in natural ecosystems. This holistic review synthesizes contemporary evidence on the sources of radiation, the biological and ecological mechanisms underlying exposure effects, and international protection standards developed to mitigate associated risks. The article explores medical diagnostic procedures, industrial emissions, cosmic and terrestrial radiation, and environmental contamination as key exposure pathways. It further examines cellular and systemic responses to radiation, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, carcinogenesis, and ecological disruptions affecting biodiversity and environmental integrity. Global protection standards, including frameworks from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), and World Health Organization (WHO), are analyzed to evaluate their effectiveness in managing radiation hazards. Finally, critical gaps, regulatory challenges, and future directions in radiation governance are highlighted. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for harmonized international policies, enhanced public awareness, and technological innovations that balance the beneficial applications of radiation with robust safeguards for human and environmental health.